Mrf Tyre Suggestions

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 0. 1 0. 1. 1 GENERAL Nylon Tyre Cord: Nylon tyre cord is made from high tenacity continuous filament yarn by twisting and plying. There are two major types of nylons used as tyre cord, i. e. nylon-6 and nylon-6,6. The properties of nylon-6 and nylon-6,6 vary marginally and are controlled by the manufacturing process, type of stabilisers and additives used. In India only nylon-6 is produced commercially for tyre cord. Thetypesofnylon-6tyrecordusedinIndiaare840/2,1260/2,1260/3, 1680/ 2 and 1890 / 2 where number indicates denier of ply / no. of plies in the cord.The denier per filament is 6. 0. 1. 2 Tyre Cord: The other materials used as tyre cord are cotton, rayon, polyester, fibre glass, steel,aromatic polyamides. Each of these materials has its own merits and demerits. The major criteria for acceptance of any material in tyre are its tensile strength, dimensional stability, durability, thermal stability, hysteresis and adhesion. Tests and actual application conditio ns have shown that although other cord materials meet one or more specific requirements, nylon by and large meets the desirable requirements for almost all the performance criteria. . 1. 3 Tyres: The tyre cord fabric provides the tyre its fundamental properties such as shape, size, load carrying capacity, abrasion resistance, fatigue resistance, etc. A tyre is a composite of cord and rubber. There are three varieties of tyres viz. bias-angle tyres, radial tyres and bias-belted tyres. They differ in the way the tyre fabric plies are laid inside the tyre. 0. 1. 4 Manufacturing Process: The manufacturing process for nylon-6 tyre cord can be broadly divided into following production steps: (a) Polymerisation of caprolactam to manufacture nylon chips. (b) Extraction and drying of chips. (c) Melt spinning of chips to manufacture nylon tyre yarn. (d) Preparation ofcordfrom tyre yarn by twisting and plying. (e) Recycling of nylon-6 waste. 0. 1. 5 Polymerisation: Nylon is made by polymerisat ion of caprolactam with certain additives like amino acids and dicarboxylic acid salts and certain heat stabiliser such as copper based organic compounds. The polymerisation process involves ring opening polycondensation and polyaddition reactions. All the three polymerisation reaction steps are equilibrium reactions.A typical process of polymerisation of nylon can be either a batch or a continuous process. The continuous process, developed after the batch process was commercialised, offers simplicity of design, ease of operation and control and high capacity. An optimal polymerisation process would involve two stages, wherein, the first stage involves pressure at high initial water concentration. In the second stage a rapid transition from high water content to a low water content is achieved by release of pressure and subsequent application of vacuum. Industrial grade nylon-6 with relative viscosity 3. 2 to 3. has higher degree of polymerisation compared to textile grade nylon-6 w ith relative viscosity 2. 2 to 2. 6. 0. 1. 6 Extrusion and Drying of Chips: The nylon chips are washed to remove water soluble impurities and then dried. The process maybe batch or continuous. 0. 1. 7 Melt Spinning: The polymer chips are melt in extruder. The molten polymer is then spun through a spinnerette. The molten filaments are quenched or cooled by a laminar flow of air. The spin finish is applied on filament and then wound on spin bobbins and drawn to make tyre yarns. In the conventional process, the spinning and drawing was done in two steps.In the spin-draw process, a step is reduced compared to 2-step conventional process. As a consequence, some sources of process disturbances are eliminated which results in improved yarn uniformity. 0. 1. 8 Preparation of Cord: Nylon tyre yarns are then twisted in S or Z direction and plied having 2 or 3 plies to form a tyre cord. 0. 1. 9 Recovery of Nylon-6 Waste: Depending on the quality of waste, any of the following method may be use d for recycling of nylon waste. Direct use of fibre waste RegrannulationPolymer Powderi) without melting ii) with melting. i) deploymerisationandfilteration i) precipitation from solutions Recovery of caprolactam by deploymerisation. Recovery of amino caproic acid. The first three processes require relatively purer and undegraded form of waste. Amongst the last two, caprolactam recovery is mostly adopted by Indian industry due to ease of purification of recovered caprolactam. 0. 1. 10 Raw Materials, (Catalysts, Additives, Spin Finish Etc. ): For nylon-6, the only major raw material required is caprolactam. Water is required as an initiator for ring opening during polymerisation. Nitrogen gas is required for blanketing, drying and conveying of polymer. 0. 1. 1 Additives/Catalysts: Aminoacids and diamine dicarboxylic add salts which provide water on condensation have been found to be useful for enhancing the rate of polymerisation. 0. 1. 12 Stabilisers: Nylon is susceptible to degrada tion by Lght, heat, oxygen etc. To make it suitable for the purpose of tyre cord, stabilisers are added. The light stabilisers used are manganous chloride + hypophosphorous add and imidazoles. Diphenylamine and acetone condensates give excellent resistance to heat. Copper complexes as halides, acetate, phosphates, salts of higher fatty adds like stearates, palmitates, laurates, etc. re quite effective as heat and light stabilisers. Spin Finish: The functions of spin finishes are to reduce friction to get proper filament cohesion and to provide static protection. Lubricants used to reduce friction are usually mineral oils, fatty glycerides. The antistats used to provide static protection are surface active organic compounds. In case of nylon tyre cord, where molten polymer is drawn in yarn stages and fabric is dipped at a very high temperatures (upto 210Â ° C), preference has been towards the use of non-fuming type spin finishes. 0. . 14 Major Capital Equipments: The major capital e quipments for each section of the plant viz polymerisation, spinning, cord making and caprolactam recovery are listed in para 1. 7. 0. 1. 15 Development of Technology: The developments in technology canbe grouped into the following: Product development. Development in the polymerisation process. Development in extraction and drying. Development in melt spinning process. A. Product Development: Till 1937, cotton used to be the only tyre cord material throughout the world. Thereafter rayon became popular.Subsequently with the advent of synthetic fibres, the use of nylon increased, which continues to be used in both the developed and developing countries, Other materials used are polyester introduced in 1962, fibre glassin 1967 and steelin 1970. NTC was earlier spun as 210 d-yarn and then plied to give 840 d tyre cord. With the development of technology, now, directly 840 d yarn can be spun and then plied to get denier ranges of 1260, 1680 and 1890 tyre cord. The denier per filament ha s however remained^ fe though some attempts have been made to use 8 deniers filaments also. It has been possible to increase tenacity from 8 gpd to9. gpd. B. Developments in Polymerisation Process: In early process, a relatively crude batch autoclave reactor was used for polymerisation. The V K tube reactors for continuous polymerisation, were introduced during early 50s. Initially, V K tube reactor had capacities of 1. 5 TPD which has now been increased upto 40 TPD. Over a period of time, number of stages of polymerisation has also increased from one to seven. Continuous developments have also taken place for modifying the design of reactors to achieve plug flow condition and uniform flow and temperature gradient, improve residence time, conversion rate and quality of products.The details of some such developments are discussed in para 1. 8. C. Developments in Extraction and Drying: In this area also, batch type extraction and drying process have been replaced by continuous process es. Chips are now stored in S. S. tanks and conveyed pneumatically to spinning section. D. Developments in Spinning Process Melting of chips was done by oil heated grids in the pre-world war era, then by electrically heated grids. In the late fifties a short barrel screw extruder was introduced which is now replaced by longbarrel extruder.Another development is increase in the spinning capacity by increased number of spinning positions and also increased number of ends per spinning position. Other improvements are in yarn solidification and quenching process, spin finish application methods etc. During late seventies, the spin-drawn process was introduced to get higher productivity and better product. During the same period, high speed spinning with take up speed of 3,000 to 4,000 mtrs/min (as compared to upto 1500 mtrs/ min in case of conventional process) was developed. 0. 2 . 2. 1 STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRY AND STATE OF THE ART: Structure of Industry: Licensed and Installed Capacity T he total licensed and installed capacity of NTC in India at present is around 29,500 TPA and 22,500 TPA respectively, as per the details given in para 2. 1. 10. LOI / IL have been issued which cover capacity of 54,200 TPA. Production: The production of NTC in India started in 1971 with 595 tonnes and increased to around 23,600 tonnes in 1985. NTC has replaced rayon tyre yarn as tyre cord yarn and market share of NTC at present is 75%.Capacity Utilisation: The licensed and installed capacity is based on certain denier while production is of different deniers and the product-mix of all manufacturers varies depending on market requirements. However, the overall average capacity utilisation ofNTCinIndiahasbeenaorundl05%duringthelastfiveyears. Distribution of Units: Active NTC manufacturers are public limited companies spread almost all over India with average capacity of 4000 TP A. Performance of Industry: The production, sales, net fixed assets, net worth of all the NTC manufacturers s how an upward trend.There is a general growth rate of 20% per annum on sales turnover during last five years. Import/Export: Import of NTC increased from 1677 tonnes in 1980-81 to 5295 tonnes in 198384 The price of NTC at international level is just half of the price in India. This is mainly due to high cost of raw materials, higher conversion costs due to old technologies and small size of Indian plants as compared to the plants in developed countries. Due to this, export of tyre yarn from India is negligible. Sources of Technology and their Broad Performance: Unitika, Japan has supplied technology and plant to three out of five Indian manufacturers of NTC.The other two manufacturers started with imported plants. The details of these collaborations are given in para 2. 15. 2. Performance of all the collaborations is satisfactory. Though, indigenous technology comprising of batch polymerisation and conventional spinning process have been developed, none of the NTC plants in India ha s yet started with such indigenous technology. The latest technologies comprising of multi-stage continuous polymerisation, continuous extraction and drying of chips, spin draw technology or high speed spinning process are not yet available indigenously.The recent trend in India to look to the ‘east' for technology may be due to the availability of technology comparable to those available from the west at a lower know how fees and lower plant costs. 2. 2 Technological Status of Indian Industry (Unit wise): The comparison of installed capacities, actual production and capacity utilisation and financial analysis in terms of net sales, net fixed assets, net profit and net worth over the period of last five years and present specific raw materials and utilities consumptions, wastage generation and recovery etc. for the following selected units is given in para 2. . J. K. Synthetics Ltd. National Rayon Corpn. Ltd. Shri Ram Fibres Ltd. Nirlon Synthetics Fibres & Chemicals Ltd. Barod a Rayon Corporation Ltd. Details of the historical background, sources of technology, research and development efforts, results achieved, etc. for each of the above units are summarised hereunder. a) J. K. Synthetics Ltd: J. K. Synthetics Limited, pioneer in the manufacture of NTC, have absorbed to a great extent the conventional technology over the last 2 decades. The company has its own research insitute—The Sir Padampat Research Centre (SPRC) and has recently floated a company—Jaykay Tech. hich can supply the conventional technology. As far as horizontal transfer is concerned, conventional technology developed and absorbed by J. K. has little commercial relevance. J. K. ‘s licenced and installed capacities are 6000 to 5000 TPA respectively. The company has recently entered into technical collaboration with M/s Tong Yang of south Korea for their latest Spin-Draw technology. The new unitwithacapacityofl2. 5TPDiscomingup. b) The National Rayon Corporation Ltd. (N ational Rayon): National Rayon commenced production of rayon tyre cord in 1961 and nylon tyre cord in 1976.The company has a technical collaboration for the latter with Unitika, who have supplied the technology and plant. The company had installed indigenously developed equipment for conversion of polymer waste to granules of spinnable grade. They have successfully indigenised manufacturing of all additives through in-house research as well as developing other suppliers. National Rayon's licensed and installed capacities are 5,000 and 5,250 TPA respectively. The company's performance during 1983 and 1984 had been adverse due to closure of plant because of labour problems.The production during 1985 to 1988 is more than the licensed capacity. As a part of modernisation and expansion programme they have installed spin-draw machines. The spin-draw yarn produced and made into fabric has alreadybeenapprovedbythecustomers. National Rayon have a fullfledged R centre approved by the Governme nt of India and is engaged in import substitution, technology absorption, machinery development and trouble shooting. National Rayon have developed process technology for polypropylene industrial yarn of high tenacity and has been regularly supplying polypropylene yarn for market development.It has also developed rayon industrial yarn, an industrial fabric for non tyre applications. National Rayon have recently installed, for the first time in India, air jet looms for making tyre fabrics of high quality. c) Shri Ram Fibres Limited (SRF): SRF' s plant for manufacture of nylon tyre cord and yarn was commissioned in 1974 in technical collaboration with Unitika. Company's present capacity is 6,335 TPA. SRF has a full-fledged Research and Development Laboratory and is constantly updating process methods and technology for product development.SRF have an independent research institute too. A very recent process developed and patented is that for polymerisation of nylon-6,6. d) Nirlon Synt hetic Fibres & Chemicals Ltd. (Nirlon) Nirlon commenced production of nylon filament yarn and tyre cord in 1962. The company had recently gone into technical collaboration with Zimmer for an expansion of their nylon tyre cord plant. Their present capacity is 5,000 TPA. Zimmer's design is based on multi polycondensation process and single stage spin draw process. Nirlon has a well established research and development base.The company had absorbed the conventional technology for manufacture of nylon tyre cord and is concentrating in developing and acquiring more modern manufacturing process. e) The Baroda Rayon Corporation Ltd. (Baroda Rayon) Baroda Rayon commenced production of rayon in 1962. Subsequently, the company commenced production of nylon tyre cord in 1981 in technical 8 collaboration with Unitika. Their present installed capacity is 2,000 TPA. Expansion of their plant to 4,000 TPA is under implementation and is expected to be commissionedby end 1987. f) The following new un its likely to come up in the near future.The present status / each of these projects is given in detail in para 2. 1. GarwareNylons Limited: Presently the company manufactures nylon and polyester filament yarn and is expanding its activities to manufacture nylon tyre cord, nylon tyre and industrial fabric in collaboration with Allied Corporation, U. S. A. , the largest producer of tyre cord in the world. Century Enka Limited: The company's major activity is manufacture of nylon and other man made fibres and plastics. Century Enka has a collaboration with their principals Enka International of Holland for the technology for manufacture of nylon 6 tyre cord.The production has commenced recently. Ballarpur Industries Ltd. andE. I. Du Pont Nemours & Co. of U. S. A. : They have jointly proposed to promote a Rs. 130 crores joint venture company to produce nylon-6,6 tyre cord for the first time in the country in collaboration with economic development corporation of Goa. An annual producti on of 16,700 tonnes of nylon-6,6 tyre yarn is envisaged. Kanoria Alkalies & Plastics Ltd: They have entered into collaboration for technical know-how, plant and machinery for manufacture of nylon tyre cord with Unitika which has been approved by Government of India. 0. 2. Status of Raw Material Industry: At present only Gujarat State Fertiliser Corpn. Ltd. , Baroda manufacture caprolactam with the capacity of 20,000 TPA in India. Three LOI have been issued by the government with a total capacity of 2,20,000 TPA. The demand projections for caprolactam made by the Committee for Perspective Planning of Petrochemical Industry by 2000 AD are 1,16,000,1,96,000 and 3,02,000 TPA for year 1989-90,1994-95 and 1999-2000 respectively. Hence, till the units who have LOI go into production, imports of caprolactam is unavoidable. The quality of indigenous caprolactam in terms of its permanganate no. nd also in terms of consistancy between various batches of manufacture is not comparable to that of imported caprolactam. 0. 2. 4 Status of Tyre Industry International: There are three types of tyre construction viz. , bias, bias-belted and radial. Radial and bias belted construction are more efficient than simple bias construction. In the world tyre market, radial tyres dominate. They were first inroduced in passenger cars then in commercial vehicles, buses and truck respectively. In U. S. A. market, no rapid change over from bias to radial tyres took place because of the tremendous capital investment required.Instead, belted bias tyres which could be manufactured on existing equipments were developed. The current trends in tyre design and manufacturing include: Use of fewer fabric plies in tyres by utilising larger and stronger cords. Use of special treatments in yarn manufacturing of the cord processing to reduce the creep of cords in tyre. Use of newer fibres such as polyester and modified nylons etc. 0. 2. 5 Status of Tyre Industry -Indian: The installed capacity of Indian t yre industry is 12 million nos. per annum, the estimated demands of tyres by 1989-90 and 1994-95 are around 21 and 31 million nos. espectively, as per estimates of Automobile Tyre Manufacturers' Assocation (ATM A). Preference so far has been towards bias angle, because of the practice of overloading; practically no care of tyres by owners / drivers and poor road conditions. However, some radial passenger car tyres have also been introduced in the market. Due to the higher melting point of nylon-6,6 and polyester as compared to that of nylon-6, the tyre curing temperature can be increased to 250Â ° C from 210Â ° C (for nylon-6). This would make curing of tyres faster and hence reduce curing cycle.This would result in higher output and also higher productivity. In practice, howevr, fast curing is not realisable in case of heavy duty tyres as the thicklayer of tread rubber will get distortedby fast curing. To take advantage of this higher productivity, the tyre manufacturers will hav e to install higher capacity curing furnaces, which will require substantial investment. Hence, before tyre manufacturers decide to install such furnaces, they would like to confirm regular availability of nylon-6,6 tyre cords at reasonable prices preferably from more than one supplier. 10The switch over from nylon-6 to nylon-6,6 would also result in more down time in tyre manufacturing. Similarly switch over from nylon to polyester requires change in dip condition, double dip processing and more downtime. Hence, whatever nylon they use, they will use it for 100 % of their requirements. 0. 2. 6 Tyre Cord and its Suitability for Various Types of Tyres: Different types of tyres require tyre cords with different properties, indicated in para 2. 12. Radial tyre or belted tyre designs take adavantage of these different requirements by placing different types of cords in the belt and in the carcass.As per the test carried out by one of the Indian radial tyre manufacturers, nylon-rayon was found to be the best combination for Indian conditions. 0. 2. 7 Status of Tyre Cord Industry -International: Major varieties of cords suitable for tyres are cotton, rayon, nylon, polyester, steel, glass fibres and aromatic polyamides. Although flat spotting shown by nylon was originally objected to strongly, nylon has continued to be the preferred tyre cord material because of its price and its superior thermal and fatigue resistance.Nylon-6 is used in Europe and other developing countries while nylon-6,6 is more prominent in U. S. A. mainly due to the manufacturing facilities established and availability of basic raw material. During the last ten to twelve years development have been largely of evolutionary nature aiming to overcome limitations of existing tyre fibres and to make them acceptable for wideruse. 0. 2. 8 Status of Tyre Cord Industry in India: Tenacity of NTC available to Indian tyre manufacturers locally varies from 8. 4 to 9. 4 with average value of 9. 2 gpd.The pres ent demand of NTC in India is around 25,000 TPA which is likely to grow to 40,000,50,000 and 61,000 TPA by 1990,1995 and 2000 AD respectively. At least for next 10-15 years, even in case of radial tyres, nylon would continue to remain as one of the components either in carcass or as belt material. With the existing manufacturing facilities, the type of vehicles in use and existing road conditions, nylon-6 will remain the material of choice except for a small quantity of radial tyres for passenger vehicles where polyester may prove to be superior.At present very little nylon-6,6 is used in India, both for textiles and industrial applications. Besides nylon-6,6 is not produced indigenously. Nylon-6,6 is costlier than nylon-6 worldwide and is likely to be more so in India. Nylon-6,6 is unlikely to be used by tyre companies for their bus and truck tyres 11 (weightage 80%) in near future, mainly due to generation of high shoulder temperature. In view of the above, establishment of fresh production capacities for nylon-6,6 industrial yarn in India may not have much scope considring interest of industry as well as the end-users. . 2. 9 State ofthe Art Scene (International) Twenty five leading manufacturers of NTC in the world are listed in para 2. 15. 1. SalientFeatures of Contemporary Technologies: The technology for manufacture of NTC is standardised as far as polymerisation process is concerned. Product characteristics of different technologies may vary marginally depending upon the type of additives and stabilisers used, design of equipment and control method of production parameters. However, design of spinning plants differs from supplier to supplier.Salient features of contemporary technologies of the following technology suppliers who have supplied/offered technologies to India are discussed in detail in para 2. 15. 2. Zimmer A . G. , West Germany. Lurgi GMBH, West Germany. Unitika Ltd. , Japan. E. I. DuPontDeNemours&Co. ,U. S. A. SniaBPD, Italy. Some importa nt features of these technology suppliers are described in subsequent paragraphs: Zimmer A. G. : Zimmer offers production of nylon-6 in continuous polymerisation operation. The specific Zimmer design allows lower water/chip ratio resulting in a high extract content in washing water, thus saving energy to caprolactam recovery plant.The company offers economic standard design for production capacities of 10 to 50 TPD for high viscosity polymer (tyre cord grade). For caprolactam recovery, Zimmer prefers batch operation for higher flexibility regarding quality and capacity. The plant is specifically designed for low caprolactam concentration in waste water, so that it can be either reused in polymerisation plant, or discharged as innocuous waste. 12 For spinning and drawing, Zimmer offers both, the two step separate process and the one step spin draw process. The former process favours production of: i) lower deniers economically i) low shrinkage yarns iii) large variety of yarn types. The one step spin draw process favours continuous production of heavier denier yarns in large capacities. It results in improvedyarn uniformity. .Lurgi GmbH: Lurgi offers both continuous polycondensation and batch polycondensation route for nylon-6 for use in tyre cord and other technical/ industrial yarn. Lurgi also offers caprolactam recovery unit deploymerisation and condensation plant and equipment for evaporation of the extracted water, treatment of concentrated caprolactam water and distillation.The company offers technology for conventional speed spinning as well as high speed spin draw process. Untika Ltd. , Japan: Unitika offers continuous polymerisation process having a pre-polymeriser coupled with continuous extraction, washing and drying of chips. It also offers caprolactam recovery process. In its polymerisation process, Unitika claims 50% saving in polymerisation time. Viscosity of melt can be adjusted as per requirement during pre-polymerisation. The spinning process offered is both conventional spinning and drawing as well as spin draw process. E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co. U. S. A. : Du Pont's industrial yarn process is based on nylon-6,6 salt i. e. hexamethylene diammonium adipate. The company has practised the continuous polymerisation technology and has developed conditions which maximise conversion, maintain precise viscosity control and ensure extended service life. Nylon-6,6 is produced continuously in a series of five vessels – evaporator, reactor, flasher, separator and finisher. Streamlined design of polymer vessels and distribution system minimises gel formation, recapture of heat and diamine and hence reduces cost of operating system. 3 Preferred Du Pont technology is based on coupling the spinning machine directly to the continuous polymeriser. It also utilises coupled spindraw. The advantages are elimination of chip making, handling, drying and remelting as also provision of maximum polymer uniformity. Du Pont offers exten sively developd quality control and laboratory testing procedures and a single, specially formulated fibre finish for all products. SNIABPD: SNIA is an Italian company giving process knowhow, plants and equipments for manufacture of nylon filament yarn and tyre cord.The company has the spin draw technology. 0. 2. 10 Latest Developments in Manufacturig Process/Design of Equipment: Product Development: Recent developments have been in the areas of improved dimensional stability of the cord, higher tenacity of tyre cords and improved heat stabiliser formulations to reduce the mechanical loss due to heat generation in tyres. Improvements in Polymerisation Process: Recent developments in this area include attainment of higher molecular weight by vacuum finishing, solid phase poymerisation to get final polymer free of extractables etc. addition of chain – coupling agents. Other significantadvances includes: For removal of unconverted monomer For lower level of water extractables in nylon polymer For improved flow and temperature distribution For transferring heat to the centre of the reactor and also to equalise flow rates Improvements in Spinning Process: The developments are directed to achieve higher spinning output upto 97% and to spin NTC of high molecular weight and melt viscosity to have high tenacity tyre cord upto 10 gpd. 0. 2. 1 Critical Evaluation of Contemporary Technology: During initial stage the technology of the synthetic fibre remained with only a 14 Falling film / spray reactors, reactorsworkingundervacuum. Organic polymer coating, internally, ofVK tube reactors. Incorporation of a tubular heat exchangerinthereactor. Provision of perforated plates and vertical aluminium partitions. few giants in the category of front line producers. Because of their conservative attitudes, no rapid technology changes were forth coming.However, the role played by the independent engineering companies which took the risks has been a great boon in the developme nt of technology. Technology suppliers can be broadly classified as front line suppliers having production back up like Unitika, Du Pont etc. and engineering companies like Zimmer, Lurgi, etc. Technology from front line producers is superior technology, requiring less time and wastage generation during production stabilisation at plant commissioning stage. However, know-how fees of these suppliers is higher compared to that of engineering companies.Engineering companies have vast experience in plant erection, basic and detailed engineering. Know-how fees of these companies are comparatively lower. The present trend is to look to the East for technology compatible with that of western countries as it is more economical, although of late, they too are becoming expensive. A project profile based on the typical offer of contemporary technology for a 6,000 TPA NTC project is placed at Annexure I. Instead of putting up many small size plants, it would be advisable to put up a few large si ze plants for economy of scale.The improvement in quality of polymer is a developmental activity which is continuous at international level. Indian companies should also endeavour to improve quality by adopting new engineering and equipment development either through their own R department or through their technical collaborations. New and better type of additives and catalysts development at international level should be incorporated by the Indian companies. Spinning plants having higher spinning efficiency and compactness, are always advisable for a country like India,to reduce the cost of production.One step process of very high spinning speed to make full drawn yarn may not be relevant in India, as at present most of the weaving and cord preparatory processes are of conventional type. So the ideal thing would be to change over to readily available higher throughput equipment. 0. 3 0. 3. 1. TECHNOLOGY ABSORPTION AND GAPS: R Efforts in National Laboratories/Institutions and Their Tie Up With Industry: Institutions like IIT, S ASMIRA, MANTRA etc. , private research institutions like 15 Sir Padampat research Centre, Shri Ram Institute of Industrial Reserach etc. nd in-house R centres of manufacturing industry are engaged in minor research projects for optimisation of production parameters or improvement of product characteristics. Developing countries like India although gradually laying more emphasis on its research and development, have not been able to catch up with their developed or advanced counterparts i. e. there is a considerable time lag between adoption of any particular process in some advanced part of the world and its commissioning in India. The efforts made to bridge this gap in the following areas are as folio ws: Indigensation of capital equipments, spares etc.Indigenisation of raw materials. Modifications and improvements in process, plant and equipments. The major constraint faced by manufacturers of indigenous equipments and spares are: non -availability of design and detailed engineering drawings. patented designs of proprietary equipments by technology suppliers, sources of capital equipments recommended by technology suppliers, limited indigenous demand of such equipments. 0. 3. 2 Indian Standards Specification: As a part of standardisation, the Bureau of Indian Standards has developed IS Specifications for methods of tests for tyre yarns as per the following details.IS:4910 Parti Part II Partlll Part IV Part V PartVI Tyre yarns, cords and tyre cord fabrics made from man made fibres, methods of tests for. Linear density. Breaking load, elongation at break and tenacity. Dippickup Heat shrinkage and heat shrinkage force. Wet contraction and wet contractive force. Definitionofterms. 16 Part VII Part VIII Part IX PartX Part XI Heat degradation. Thickness (gauge) Sampling Growth Commercial weight. The specifications of polyamide tyre cord warp-sheet for automotive tyres published by the bureau is, IS 11926:1987. The spec ifications are given in Table 4. . 3. 3 Profitability of Indian Industry and its Relationships with Technology: At present the profit margins of NTC manufacturers are fairly satisfactory, even with the present conventional technologies and small capacity plants. Interaction with user industry by NTC manufacturers is also quite good. However, the constraints in respect of technology absorption faced by Indian NTC industry are: low capacities of plant. imported capital equipments, parts and spares, non-availability of trained technological manpower, poor labour – management relations. . 3. 4 Export Performance Due to high cost of raw materials and also higher conversion costs due to small capacity plants based on older technologies, the Indian NTC industry has not been able to contribute in the export market. 0. 3. 5 Comparison of Product Specification Between Units: In India, the product range and specifications of all the manuacturing units is almost identical. 0. 3. 6 Modern isation Need: As mentioned earlier, cost of production of Indian NTC industry is higher due to small capacity plants based on older technologies.There is an urgent need to modernise these plants to adopt most advanced technologies and a much higher level of operations. 17 However, for such modernisation substantial funds willlbe required. Financial Institutions are giving soft loans under technology development funds and industries have started taking advantage of this scheme. 0. 3. 7 Technology Gap: Technology gaps in following areas have been identified and discussed in para 3. 9 Product developments Plant capacity Polymerisation process Melt spining process Indigenous manufacture of plant and equipments Indigenous availability of raw materials, additives and spin finishes etc.Internationally, cords with yams having 8 deniers per filament and upto 3,000 deniers of cords and 11 gpd tenacity are available, while in India cords with yarns having only 6 deniers per filament and 9. 2 g pd tenacity are manufactured. The average plant capacity of NTC in India, till 1983, was 2,000 TP A against the defined economic size of plant of 6,000 TP A. Polymerisation: Since the modern continuous polymerisation, extraction, washing and drying systems are suited to large capacity, till recently only conventional batch processes were used.Further, continuous polymerisation lines eliminating chip formation (especially in nylon-6,6) and remelting are not in use at preesent, in India. Melt spinning: More efficient large capacity spinning equipments are being used in the world. These have sophisticated yarn sensing and monitoring systems and hence the quality of yarn is much better with higher throughput. Such latest spinning processes are not available in the country and such technology is now being imported. 18 Reasons for technological gaps are: seller's market situation large number of small capacity plants. otalabsence of exportmarket. good financial performance of Indian Indus try even with the available technologies. general / absence of R&D efforts and know-why exercises, limited developments in the Indian automobile industry, lackof product upgradation at tyre manufacturer's end. To bridge the technological gaps, import of latest spinning equipments and process know-how for spin draw and high speed spinning process, designs and drawings for modernisation of existing polymerisation processes are required. 0. 4. 0 SUGGESTED: STEPS TO BRIDGE TECHNOGICAL GAPThe following suggestions are made to bridge the technological gap: a) Latest technology comprising of continuous polymerisation in two stage V K Tube reactors, continuous extraction and drying of chips, spin draw technology or high speed spinning processes for fully oriented yarn may be imported and horizontally transferred in India. Although some pilot units have been installed by spinners, the industry seems to be waiting for customers' acceptance. b) Develop indigenous manufacture of selected equipm ents, wherever it is economically viable and import only latest plant and equipments on selective basis. ) Develop basic and detailed engineering expertise in Indian engineering companies to necessitate import of only design and drawings for new plants rather than package import. An engineering organisation having expertise in basic and detailed engineering should be encouraged for development and transfer of technology for NTC and related products. d) Widen R&D efforts both at industry and research institutions level with active association and close cooperation between them. e) Provide necessary incentives to indigenous development of manufacture of plant and equipment. 9 f) Permit only large sized plants. g) Provide incentives for intensified research activities at industry level with close monitoring of such incentives. Establish a central tyre research institute with facilities to test developments in new designs of tyres, new tyre cord materials and modifications in tyre cord materials. Develop skills in technical personal, by arranging training abroad or by arranging traimng programmes by institutions like IIT, S ASMIR A, etc. and constant interaction with foreign experts. 20

Bilingualism affects childrens language and cognitive development

The possibility that early bilingualism affects kids ‘s linguistic communication and cognitive development has long been a concern for parents and pedagogues. In the first half of the twentieth century, the predominating position was that bilingualism and second-language acquisition early in life made kids baffled and interfered with their ability to develop normal cognitive functions1 and win in educational environments.2 These thoughts were dramatically reversed in a landmark survey by Peal and Lambert3 that showed a general high quality of bilinguals over monolinguals in a broad scope of intelligence trials and facets of school accomplishment. Recent research has been more balanced, placing countries in which bilingual kids excel and others in which bilingualism has no consequence on their development. The inquiry sing the possible impact of bilingualism on kids ‘s development has ever been of import, but has progressively emerged as a important concern for modern societies and for Canada in peculiar. In add-on to the official committedness to a national policy of second-language acquisition and bilingualism, in-migration has transformed Canada into a rich multilingual and multicultural state. Public schools, particularly in major urban Centres, are home to big Numberss of kids for whom English or French is a 2nd linguistic communication. These kids represent an tremendous assortment of place linguistic communications and frequently constitute the bulk of kids in a individual schoolroom. Therefore, it is imperative that we understand the impact of these linguistic communication backgrounds on kids ‘s cognitive and educational hereafters. Information about the linguistic communication, cognitive and educational development of kids with varied linguistic communication backgrounds is indispensable to construe the public presentation of these kids in school and measure their development. For illustration, kids with limited proficiency in the linguistic communication of schooling are certain to see increased trouble in get bying both academically and socially, and it is of import to place these troubles in order to understand what intercession or remedial attacks are needed. The research is typically conducted in schoolrooms, frequently settings incorporating both multilingual and monolingual kids. The context in which the bilingualism or 2nd linguistic communication occurs is of import, even though it is non ever included as a formal facet of research probe. There is grounds that whether the kid ‘s place linguistic communication is in a bulk or minority state of affairs, is valued in the community and is used as a medium for literacy undertakings affects the kid ‘s lingual and cognitive outcomes.4 Therefore, the deductions of the kid ‘s linguistic communication experience should ideally be examined with careful attending to the societal and lingual factors that describe the kid ‘s societal and educational environment. The of import issues concern the cognitive and educational results for bilingual kids. First, it is necessary to set up whether linguistic communication acquisition returns at the same rate and in the same mode for kids who are larning two linguistic communications at the same time or are larning a 2nd linguistic communication after holding begun to get the hang one. Second, are kids able to get literacy accomplishments at school if they are either bilingual or larning a 2nd linguistic communication, particularly if their place linguistic communication is non the linguistic communication of direction? Finally, are at that place effects on normal cognitive development in footings of the kid ‘s ability to get new constructs or execute assorted computations ( e.g. arithmetic ) , particularly if school direction is in the kid ‘s weaker linguistic communication? There are three chief outcomes from this research. First, for general linguistic communication proficiency, bilingual kids tend to hold a smaller vocabulary in each linguistic communication than monolingual kids in their language.5 However, their apprehension of lingual construction, called metalinguistic consciousness, and is at least as good6 and frequently better7 than that of comparable monolinguals. Second, the acquisition of literacy accomplishments in these kids depends on the relationship between the two languages8 and the degree of proficiency in the 2nd language.9 Specifically, kids larning to read in two linguistic communications that portion a authorship system ( e.g. English and Gallic ) show accelerated advancement in larning to read ; kids whose two linguistic communications are written in different systems ( e.g. English and Chinese ) show no particular advantage, but neither do they show any shortage relation to monolinguals. The benefit of larning to read in two lin guistic communications, nevertheless, requires that kids be bilingual and non second-language scholars whose competency in one of the linguistic communications is weak. Third, bilingual kids between four and eight old ages old demonstrate a big advantage over comparable monolinguals in work outing jobs that require commanding attending to specific facets of a show and suppressing attending to deceptive facets that are outstanding but associated with an wrong response. This advantage is non confined to linguistic communication processing, but includes a assortment of non-verbal undertakings that require controlled attending and selectivity in such jobs as organizing conceptual classs, 10 seeing alternate images in ambitious figures, 11 and understanding the difference between the visual aspect and functional world of a deceptive object.12 The consequences of these surveies demonstrate that childhood bilingualism is a important experience that has the power to act upon the class and efficiency of kids ‘s development. The most surprising result is that these influences are non confined to the lingual sphere, where such influence would be expected, but extend every bit good to non-verbal cognitive abilities. In most instances, the kid ‘s grade of engagement with a 2nd linguistic communication, defined as the difference between bilingualism and second-language acquisition, is an of import variable that determines both the grade and type of influence that is found. Three forms of influence were noted in these surveies. One result is that bilingualism makes no difference, and monolingual and bilingual kids develop in the same manner and at the same rate. This was found for cognitive jobs such as memory- span development and linguistic communication jobs such as phonological consciousness. The 2nd is that bilingu alism disadvantages kids in some manner. The primary illustration of this is in the development of vocabulary in each linguistic communication. The 3rd form, and the most prevailing in our surveies, is that bilingualism is a positive force that enhances kids ‘s cognitive and lingual development, bettering entree to literacy if the two composing systems correspond and development of general executive procedures for all bilingual kids work outing a broad scope of non-verbal jobs necessitating attending and control. These executive control abilities are at the Centre of intelligent idea. Parents are frequently concerned that utilizing a non-community linguistic communication as the linguistic communication of their place will disfavor their kids. This plan of research provides solid grounds that the overpowering consequence of bilingualism in the place is positive. The disadvantages are comparatively minor and easy get the better of. The deductions for schooling are more complex. Children ‘s success in school is strongly dependent on their proficiency in the linguistic communication of direction, a relationship that holds for of import lingual activities ( e.g. larning to read ) , non-verbal computational topics ( e.g. mathematics ) , and content-based course of study ( e.g. societal surveies ) . In all these instances, kids must be skilled in the signifiers and significances of the school linguistic communication and be competent readers of that linguistic communication. Bilingual kids may non be at the same degree as their monolingual equals, and second-langu age scholars for whom English or French is non their place linguistic communication may hold non built up equal accomplishments in the instructional linguistic communication to win in schools. The grounds for the overpowering positive benefit of bilingualism, together with grounds that bilingual kids are non cognitively handicapped, indicates an of import function for schools in supplying a agency for these kids to construct up their linguistic communication accomplishments in the school linguistic communication so that they can be full participants in the schoolroom and harvest the most positive benefit from their educational experience.

Moral and Ethics in Philosophy Literature review

Moral and Ethics in Philosophy - Literature review Example The mind-body problem according to Descartes the human bodies were likened to machinery that worked on their own rules taking no lead from anything else. This he explained giving an example of the involuntary actions that make the body get into action. He pointed out the reflex action of a human being could not have included the mind since the external stimuli activate the nerve ending of the body and force them to act. However, although the body was free, there were situations where the mind worked as a lever exerting pressure on the body to make it bend to the demands of the mind. According to Descartes, the body was physical, could be influenced by other material properties while the mind was non-physical, and, therefore, did not fall prey of any natural laws. Rene attributed the interaction of the body and the mind to the pineal gland found in the brain, as this is not duplicated in the other side of the brain and, therefore, provided a unifying factor in the interaction. He beli eved this interaction made it possible for the mind to exert influence over the body and make it act in a certain way. He also stated that the body was also capable of influencing the mind, which is rather rational, and forcing it into action through an act of passion. Following the assertions made by Descartes, Hobbes disagreed on the aspect of the immaterial mind and states that the mind is made up of sense, imagination, and the working of language and it does not consist of any other rational characteristic other than these. (Marmysz 180). According to Hobbes, all the ideas that human beings experience is resultant from our senses directly or indirectly, he explains how our thoughts work through the formation of ideas and a comprehensive look at sensations and the workings of imagination. Hobbes denies the existence of an immaterial mind and attempts to solve the mind-body problem through the philosophy of language. Hobbes attempts to solve the problem led him to come up with the signification theory, where he explains that, for example, in naming man introduces a mark in his mind to bring a conception concerning the item on which it is imposed to help him in the association process. He, therefore, states that naming is a way of putting marks on the memory (Marmysz 180). In his works, he states that aspects of language are arbitrary and conventional, through this, he fails to explain how then the marks for memory used in naming are able to be constant with different languages as Descartes pointed out when countering Hobbes views (Broughton and Carriero 18).  Ã‚  

Leonardo Da Vinci Perpetual Machine Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leonardo Da Vinci Perpetual Machine - Assignment Example The model presented in the picture is probably the simplest among them, but it is definitely as good as others are. The main purpose of such layout was to create asymmetry using additional physical effects. This hypothetical perpetual wheel would revolve around its axis, and the metal pellets placed in the sections of the wheel would roll over, creating unevenness in load distribution and making the wheel keep on moving. However, eventually, Da Vinci admitted that the construction of a working perpetual machine is impossible. Commenting this conclusion, Da Vinci wrote that, interpreted into modern language, when the pellet (i.e. the weight) placed in one of the sections â€Å"moves farther from the pivot, the gravitational torque on it increases, but also the moment of inertia of the wheel is increased at the same time, which makes the gravitational torque less effective in increasing or sustaining motion of the wheel† (Simanek). In other words, the obtain effect is eventually zero. Moreover, Da Vinci concluded that every mechanical system inevitably loses its power through friction (Capra). Later, and especially at the dawn of the 20 century (intensive industrialization), the inventors tried to improve older prototypes of perpetual machines, but these attempts proved to be failure due to laws of physics (e.g. the principle of perpetual motion virtually violates two first laws of thermodynamics (Roy). In the end, the idea of a mechanism producing free energy without any outside sources or fuel was condemned as

Organisational Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Organisational Behaviour - Essay Example Formal leadership is effective in managing and organizing people in an organization. Thus, leadership becomes incredibly important as it draws the line between organization success, failure or satisfaction and lack of it among the employees (Culbert 5). This paper is going to discuss effective leadership in an organization and the challenges of leadership. Leadership is very important in every workplace as it maximizes efficiency and allows employees to achieve goals set by the organization. Leadership is the starting point of all the actions that takes place in the organization, that is, the leader starts by informing the staff members on the organization rules, policies and regulation and describes all that needs attention by the workers. Thus, the leader sets the pace and the workers follow hence initiates all the actions involved in running the organization (Johnson 22). In addition, leadership entails motivating fellow employees with economic or non-economic rewards such as prom otion, which will ensure employees give their best of performance to the organization. With this motivation, the leader in the organization ensures that the employees maximize their potential and enhances organizations performance. Guidance also comes from leadership, as the leader has the responsibility to outline all the policies of the organization. With good leadership from a good leader, all employees will work under the rules set by the leader ensuring that all the employees work and flow together on their work (Kouzes and Posner19). Subsequently, effective leadership helps to build the confidence of the employees. For instance, a leader in the organization will provide guidance to the employees and constantly monitor and listen to the employee’s needs and demands pertaining to their job. This will help employee’s understand that the leader is concerned about their welfare and is among them, hence enhancing their confidence. Consequently, leadership helps to buil d an efficient and effective working environment, in that, it ensures that goals are achieved, an element of management. This working environment promotes the relationships among the workers as it provides an understanding in the work place (Giulian and Kurson 38). Leaders should also take time to listen to their employees’ problems and try to solve them, this will in fact promote one on one relationship between the workers enhancing working environment. Nevertheless, in matters of personal interest and the organization interest, leadership will synchronize the two interests’ ensuring that all the interest are met through coordination. All these factors above are vital for the growth and development of any organization and workplace. Without leadership, an organization will have no formality of running its operations preventing it from achieving its objectives. Hence, every successful business lays great leadership (Harrison, Greenfield, Fiorina, and Chambers 26). Bad leadership directly or indirectly harms the organization. It pushes away hardworking and skilled staff due to bad leadership, as this has a direct impact on the economic performance and general growth of the organization. In spite of leadership being a great thing for an organization, it never misses challenges that prevent it

The European Union will not last another Decade Essay - 1

The European Union will not last another Decade - Essay Example The general view among many Europeans is that the Union is gradually becoming an immaterial isthmus of the Eurasian continent. Analysts have identified key issues that make the European Union weak and unable to progress further soon. Structural economic challenges pose the greatest threat to the Unions survival. It is said that globalization has made other regions become more competitive than the Eurozone. Many members of the European Union lack competitiveness. Globalization has allowed business establishments to produce where expenses of producing goods and services are lowest. Third world countries, as well as some of the emerging markets, are competitively outpacing the developed nations in growing and developing their economies. These countries are quickly adapting specialized high-value productions (Sanchis Marco, n.d.). Their labor markets are very skilled, therefore, able to be productive in high technological industries. It is a fact that the working conditions in the European Union for workers is better, that they provide better social amenities and that the working conditions are supremely better in terms of social benefits. However, the better quality of social amenities offered means that the cost of production must sufficiently accommodate those costs, and, therefore, translates to higher prices for goods and services delivered. Private investors have not made the situation any better as they relocate production to the much cheaper cost of production locations in the emerging markets, which serve a double purpose of offering ready markets for some of their products. The proportion of inactive and active individuals in the Eurozone is worsening by the day (Laursen, 2013). It is projected that countries within the European Union will not have enough human assets, while at the same time these countries have failed to

The current economic situation will force every one to consider Essay

The current economic situation will force every one to consider carefully how money is spent - Essay Example Americans, when they are in need of money for making a house or for purchasing a car, will usually approach the banks other financial institutions for loans. The banks have a habit of sanctioning loans without proper enquiries about the financial assets of the person who approached them. Thus the American public got money from financial sources without any barrier whenever they are in need and that resulted in too much spending compared to saving. The current economic situation will force everyone to consider carefully how money is spent. This paper briefly explains the changes in money spending habits caused by the current financial crisis or economic recession. â€Å"A staggering 87% of American families have rethought their eating habits and the food they buy in order to reduce costs. 40% of Americans report they have had to cut back on the amount of food or groceries they purchase in the wake of today’s economic crisis.   Family income is a big factor.   Nearly half — 49% — of those whose annual household income is less than $50,000 say they’ve slashed spending on food in order to make ends meet compared with 28% who earn more†1. The above statistics clearly show how severe the current economic problem is. Americans, who spend lavishly for food items and their eating, forced to cut down their spending on these commodities because of the current crisis. Many people has lost their jobs and many others under the threat of losing their employment which forced them to reduce their family spending on eating items. Earlier line buses were simply a fashion for the American people. Most of the people used their own vehicles for their traveling needs. But at present the line buses are running full and people started to use the line buses more frequently to cut down their expenses in order to escape from the current financial crisis. ‘The Impact of the Financial Crisis in Public Transportation is so severe that the nationwide

Career statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Career statement - Essay Example I shall have to develop vast knowledge of the latest means, advanced tools, and strategies for efficient sales and marketing of products as well as of the operations involved in deriving different kinds of chemicals and byproducts from crude oil in the next five years. In addition to that, the skills and abilities I will need to develop in the next five years include presentation skills and technological skills including developing competence in the latest software employed in sales and marketing. I will have gained a lot of knowledge about my field at the point of completion of my undergraduate degree. However, I shall continue developing my knowledge by getting the Master’s degree in Marketing. Besides, I shall keep attending workshops and conferences and will also be in search of good short courses to refresh my knowledge as well as learn the latest trends in the use of steel in the industry. These workshops, conferences, and short courses will also help me acquire the need ed skills and abilities in addition to the practical experience of working I shall get through working in the field. There is a lot of margin for growth in the both steel and petrochemical industries. There is no dearth of organizations looking for professionals to fill these positions across the world. Construction and oil exploration never goes out of trend and it is safe to assume that I shall easily find job anywhere in the world any time. I would most likely go to a graduate school after completing my undergraduate degree.

Media Programming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Media Programming - Essay Example Television and films may also ruin the eyesight of people. The television projects contrast and brightness that could cause a reaction against people’s eyes. This makes the eyesight weaker. Also, this causes soreness in the eyes, and inn extreme cases, it may result to complete visual impairment in individuals. Movies encourage violence in the society. There is no doubt that there is a high production of violent movies now than ever before. This influences people in a big way by encouraging shootings, fights and disrespect in teenagers. These movies may also encourage indulgence in cults. A report from http://www.cybercollege.com/violence.html indicates that children who watch violent movies may end up getting convicted of a crime. Media programs also encourage a Larger than Life Character among children and teenagers. Media programs may air movies with skilled fighters, acrobatics and human beings with superhuman powers. This may cause children to try dangerous things in order to have the superhuman characters. For example, after watching Spiderman, children may subject themselves to spider bites. Media programs may also act as a means to propaganda. The main goal of film makers is to increase profits. Therefore, they may use controversial topics such as legalization of drugs, racism or human sexuality. The use of propaganda helps the filmmakers reach more people. However, it may raise agitations, protests and uproar among people. Media programs have many advantages and impacts in people’s lives.

African American Essay Example for Free

African American Essay Write a 750- to 1,400-word paper in which you consider the following regarding the religious group and racial/ethnic group you selected: Religious group:Â  How does your selected religious group differ from other religious groups (such as in their beliefs, worship practices, or values)? What has been the experience of your selected religious group with others that do not share its beliefs or practices? In what ways has the religious group you selected contributed to American culture? Provide specific examples of prejudice or discrimination your selected religious group has experienced. What were the sources of this prejudice or discrimination? Does what you’ve learned about this religious group help you understand it? In what ways? Racial/ethnic group: How does your selected racial/ethnic group differ from other racial/ethnic groups (such as differences in ancestry, language, or culture)? What has been your selected group’s experience with other groups? In what ways has the racial/ethnic group you selected contributed to American culture? Identify some specific examples of prejudice or discrimination that your selected group has experienced historically. What were the sources of this prejudice or discrimination? Does what you’ve learned about this racial/ethnic group help you understand it? How? Include the following as part of your conclusion: How are the prejudice and discrimination experienced by your selected religious group and racial/ethnic group similar? How are they different? Can you draw any conclusions about discrimination from this comparison? Provide citations for all the sources you use.

The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho

The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho The House of Lords decision in Bolitho (Bolitho v City and Hackney HA [1998] AC 232) is a belated and welcome departure from judicial deference to medical opinion but there is still too much deference and more has to be done. Critically comment on the above statement. In any negligence claim, in order to succeed the claimant must show that he was owed a duty of care by the defendant, that the duty of care was breached, and that the breach of duty caused the damage complained of.[1] Kennedy and Grubb comment that the duty of care arises ‘from a request for medical services by an individual and a consequent undertaking by a doctor [or other health care professional] to provide these services.[2] Margaret Brazier has observed: ‘[a] patient claiming against his doctor †¦ usually has little difficulty in establishing that the defendant owes him a duty of care’.[3] The second stage of a clinical negligence action is to show that the doctor has breached his standard of care. In any negligence claim, the standard of care is set by law and is an objective standard.[4] Words such as reasonable or responsible are normally attributed to such a standard. Such adjectives are not normally equated with a practice that is ‘common’ or ‘accepted’. With respect to medical negligence claims however, the law has not taken such a view. The case of Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee[5] has established that ‘a doctor is not guilty of negligence if he has acted in accordance with a practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical men skilled in that particular art’. The Bolam case was a decision at first instance, but was later approved by the House of Lords in Whitehouse v Jordan.[6] The courts have continuously taken a protectionist view of the medical profession in clinical negligence claims. Jackson acknowledges that this could be due to the complexity of medical evidence, but it could also be explained by a sense of professional solidarity.[7] The medical profession has been highly regarded in society, and the courts have also expressed their respect. In Wilsher v Essex AHA,[8] Mustill LJ comments: â€Å"For all we know, [The doctors in this case] far surpassed on numerous occasions the standard of reasonable care. Yet it is said that for one lapse they (and not just their employers) are to be held liable in damages. Nobody could criticise the mother for doing her best to secure her son’s financial future. But has not the law taken a wrong turning if an action of this kind is to succeed?† It is interesting to note the difference in policy in cases involving medical professionals. In other negligence cases, the courts have commented that the function of the law of negligence (and the law of torts in general), is to compensate injured parties for loss. The judiciary have had no moral objections to awarding damages in cases where they can apply the ‘deepest pocket’ principle. Thus, in Nettleship v Weston,[9] Lord Denning had no problems in asserting that a learner driver would be held to the same standard of a competent driver (competent would be ascertained on an objective basis by the court), as the driver would be insured and thus, the law will award damages from the deepest pocket. Yet, there has been considerable hesitation in holding doctors negligent for public policy reasons, despite the fact that doctors will be also be insured. Furthermore, doctors working in the NHS will generally not be personally held accountable for the negligence – the action is brought against the Trust vicariously and NHS Trusts in England and Wales are part of an ‘insurance like’ scheme, the Clinical Negligence Scheme for Trusts (CNST) administered by the NHS Litigation Authority. The Bolam principle may be formulated as a rule that a doctor is not negligent if he acts in accordance with a practice accepted at the time as proper by a responsible body of medical opinion even though other doctors may adopt a different practice. ‘In short, the law imposes the duty of care; but the standard of care is a matter of medical judgment.’[10] In Maynard v West Midlands RHA,[11] Lord Scarman seemed to favour an approach that a doctor will not be negligent if there are other reasonably held approaches that are the same as the defendant doctor’s approach: â€Å"I have to say that a judge’s ‘preference’ for one body of distinguished professional opinion to another also professionally distinguished is not sufficient to establish negligence in a practitioner whose actions have received the seal of approval of those whose opinions, truthfully expressed, honestly held, were not preferred †¦ For in the realm of diagnosis and treatment negligence is not established by preferring one respectable body of professional opinion to another.† The pure Bolam approach is the subject of scathing academic criticism. Kennedy and Grubb comment: â€Å"It may seem curious that the law would defer to the medical profession in setting the content of the duty in negligence.†[12] Despite the deference to the medical profession in the courts, there have been some exceptions and one example is the case of Hucks v Cole.[13] The case involved a pregnant woman with a septic finger whose doctor failed to prescribe her penicillin. The patient suffered puerperal fever as a result and a number of witnesses gave evidence stating that they would not have prescribed penicillin in the same situation. However, the Court of Appeal held that even if there are relatively small risks involved, the fact that it would have been easy to avoid such risks so easily and inexpensively, is clearly not reasonable. Sachs LJ comments: â€Å"On such occasions the fact that other practitioners would have done the same thing as the defendant practitioner is a very weighty matter to be put on the scales on his behalf; but it is not †¦ conclusive. †¦ Despite the fact that the risk could have been avoided by adopting a course that was easy, efficient and inexpensive, and which would have entailed only minimal chances of disadvantages to the patient, the evidence of the four defence experts to the effect that they and other responsible members of the medical profession would have taken the same risk in the same circumstances has naturally caused me to hesitate †¦ The reasons given by the four experts do not to my mind stand up to analysis †¦Ã¢â‚¬  The approach taken in Hucks v Cole was also adopted by the House of Lords in Bolitho v City and Hackney HA,[14] in which the traditional Bolam approach was departed from. Lord Browne-Wilkinson comments: â€Å"In the vast majority of cases the fact that distinguished experts in the field are of a particular opinion will demonstrate the reasonableness of that opinion. In particular, where there are questions of assessment of the relative risks and benefits of adopting a particular medical practice, a reasonable view necessarily presupposes that the relative risks and benefits have been weighed by the experts in forming their opinions. But if, in a rare case, it can be demonstrated that the professional opinion is not capable of withstanding logical analysis, the judge is entitled to hold that the body of opinion is not reasonable or responsible.† The relevance of the Bolitho decision was initially regarded as a major shift from the pure Bolam approach. Following the decision, Kennedy and Grubb comment that ‘the law has been put back on its proper course’.[15] Lord Browne-Wilkinson was suggesting that medical approach must be defensible and capable of withstanding logical analysis. However, he qualified this by stating that this would only occur in ‘rare’ cases. Hucks v Cole was certainly one of those rare cases, but it is arguable whether there has been a significant shift in approach by the courts. In Wisniewski v Central Manchester Health Authority,[16] the defendant did not follow a procedure that would have detected that a baby’s umbilical cord was wrapped around his neck during birth and the medical opinion differed over the reasonableness of such. Brooke LJ comments that: â€Å"Hucks v Cole itself was unquestionably one of the rare cases which Lord Browne-Wilkinson had in mind †¦ In my judgment the present case falls unquestionably on the other side of the line, and it is quite impossible for a court to hold that the views sincerely held by [the experts supporting the actions of the defendant] cannot logically be supported at all †¦ the views expressed by [those experts] were views which could be logically supported and held by responsible doctors.† There have been a small number of ‘rare’ cases where the courts have gone as far as questioning the logic and defensibility of medical authority. The case of Reynolds v North Tyneside Health Authority,[17] is one such example. Thus, Gross J comments that it is one of those ‘rare cases where the Court could and should conclude that such body of opinion was unreasonable, irresponsible, illogical and indefensible.’ Similarly, in Marriott v West Midlands RHA,[18] the Court of Appeal stated that the expert evidence given by the witnesses defending the doctor’s conduct could not be logically supported. The Court of Appeal also affirmed that the trial judge was entitled to question whether an opinion was reasonably held and Mason and Laurie comment that ‘[o]n the face of things, then, Marriott moves the Bolitho test from one of logic to one of reasonableness, which is much more akin to the reasoning applied in other, non-medical standard of care decisi ons.’[19] The approach taken by the courts post Bolitho seems to suggest that the courts are only prepared to examine the credibility of witnesses and not the content of their evidence. So long as the evidence given is ‘truthfully held’ and ‘honestly expressed’ then the court is reluctant to question the evidence.[20] Furthermore, there have been a number of post-Bolitho decisions and it seems as though there is still a constant reluctance to question medical experts, and if there has been any departure from the traditional Bolam approach, this certainly seems to have been on the basis of the credibility of expert witnesses, and not on the reasonableness of their opinion. Thus, the subsequent case law suggests a somewhat restrictive approach on the modification of the Bolam principle in its new Bolitho interpretation.[21] Writing extra judicially, Lord Woolf comments that there have been a number of reasons for a shift away from the traditional approach in Bolam.[22] The courts apparently now have a less deferential approach to those in authority.[23] The courts have also apparently recognised the difficulties that genuine claimants have in successfully bringing a clinical negligence claim. At the same time, there has been a raise in the number of clinical negligence claims in England and Wales over the last number of years.[24] Furthermore, with an increasing awareness of patient rights, an increasing loss of faith in the public health service following various health ‘scandals’ such as Bristol and Alder Hey, a judicial deference to the medical profession certainly has its days numbered. Also, as Woolf acknowledges, ‘our courts were aware that courts at the highest level of other Commonwealth jurisdictions, particularly Canada and Australia, were rejecting the approach of the Engli sh Courts. They were subjecting the actions of the medical profession to a closer scrutiny that the English Courts †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢[25] Other commentators have also noted the way in which lawyers approach the issue of using expert witnesses. Teff comments: â€Å"Reassertion at the highest level of the court’s role in scrutinizing professional practice is welcome, not least because of current concerns about the dynamics of providing expert evidence for the purposes of adversarial litigation. Some law firms’ choice of experts is apt to depend too much on perceived presentational skills and acuity in advancing the client’s case, and too little on detached expertise†¦ †¦ One prominent medicolegal authority has bluntly declared that ‘Bolam will only work fairly if the use of hired hands as defence medical experts is eliminated. It would then be possible to talk of a responsible body of medical opinion’.†[26] Teff has thus outlined some of the practices that demonstrate how the Bolam principle is deferential in practice. Lawyers tend to look for an expert who will make their case stronger, and a survey of 500 expert witnesses revealed that about a quarter noted comments that in some instances, witnesses were requested to change comments that were alteration of their opinions.[27] The problems associated with the Bolam test have not only presented themselves in clinical negligence cases. The traditional Bolam approach was also questioned under the scope of ‘informed consent’ cases, which involve a claim of negligence for failing to warn of risks inherent in treatment. The leading case on the issue of disclosure of risks in treatment is Sidaway v Board of Governors of the Bethlem Royal Hospital.[28] Discussion of the Bolam test was present in practically all of the judgments delivered. Lord Bridge asserted that the law should reject the ‘reasonable patient’ test and follow a modified version of the Bolam test. Accordingly, disclosure of information is ‘primarily a matter of clinical judgment’, but this does not mean that the profession is entitled to set its own standard in such cases. Thus, a judge would be entitled to hold that a clinician should have disclosed a risk where there was a procedure that involved a ‘substantial risk of grave adverse consequences’, giving the example of a 10 per cent risk of stroke as substantial, but a 1 or 2 per cent risk of spinal cord damage was not substantial. Similarly, Lord Templeman also suggested that a modified Bolam approach should be taken. Subsequent interpretation of the Sidaway case has not been straightforward. The reasoning of the judges in the case is far from consistent, and furthermore, according to Lord Browne-Wilkinson, the modified test put forward to Bolitho did not apply to such cases. The Court of Appeal in Gold v Haringey HA,[29] merely referred to the judgment of Lord Diplock and therefore applying the Bolam principle in its purest form, an approach not generally followed by the House of Lords in Sidaway. The Australian High Court on the other hand decided the issue differently in the case of Rogers v Whitaker.[30] In that case, the shortcomings of the Bolam test were identified by the High Court: â€Å"One consequence of the application of the Bolam principle to cases involving the provision of advice or information is that, even if a patient asks a direct question about the possible risks or complications, the making of that inquiry would logically be of little or no significance; medical opinion determines whether the risk should or should not be disclosed and the express desire of a particular patient for information or advice does not alter that opinion or the legal significance of that opinion. The fact that the various majority opinions in Sidaway †¦ for example, suggest that, over and above the opinion of a respectable body of medical practitioners, the questions of a patient should truthfully be answered (subject to the therapeutic privilege) indicates a shortcoming in the Bolam approach.† The Australian High Court specifically chose not to follow the Bolam test in information disclosure cases, commenting: â€Å"In Australia, it has been accepted that the standard of care to be observed by a person with some special skill or competence is that of the ordinary skilled person exercising and professing to have that special skill †¦ But, that standard is not determined solely or even primarily by reference to the practice followed or supported by a responsible body of opinion in the relevant profession or trade †¦ Even in the sphere of diagnosis and treatment, the heartland of the skilled medical practitioner, the Bolam principle has not always been applied †¦ Further, and more importantly, particularly in the field of non-disclosure of risk and the provision of advice and information, the Bolam principle has been discarded and, instead, the courts have adopted the principle that, while evidence of acceptable medical practice is a useful guide for the courts, it is for the courts to adjudicate on what is the appropriate standard of care after giving weight to the paramount consideration that a person is entitled to make his own decisions about his life.† The comments made by Lord Woolf[31] in his paper are clearly justified when examining the decision in Rogers v Whittaker. Commonwealth decisions have been far more willing to examine and scrutinize medical evidence and it may not always be a question of what is more preferential for the judge to follow, but it is instead what the judge feels is reasonable. This does not involve the judge merely accepting that two courses of treatment may have both been reasonable in the circumstances in the opinion of medical experts. The judge’s actual role is to establish the reasonableness of each on the basis of the evidence presented to him and that does not necessarily mean that both have to be right. Mason and Laurie comment: â€Å"[W]hile the courts are increasingly determined to see that the Bolam principle is not extended [into areas such as judging ‘best interests’], they still have an innate reluctance to abandon it in respect of medical opinion; there is a sense that Bolitho, although welcome, is being used mainly in a ‘back-up’ position. What is certain is that Bolam can no longer be regarded as impregnable.† Thus, on the basis of the above comment, the post-Bolitho meaning of Bolam is that it is merely a back up for when the case faced by the court suits a change in approach. Furthermore, while the courts have been apparently reluctant to extending the Bolam principle into the best interests test,[32] the principle has already been incorporated into the concept of best interests. Airedale NHS Trust v Bland[33] required an analysis of what was in the best interests of a patient in a persistent vegetative state, who was being kept alive by artificial nutrition and hydration. In an analysis of whether such nutrition and hydration should be withdrawn (resulting in the death of the patient), the Law Lords turned to analyse the patient’s best interests. The treatment was apparently not in the patient’s best interests. This was because it was regarded as futile. In Lord Goff’s words[34], ‘the patient is unconscious and there is no prospect of any improvement in his condition’. In deciding whether the treatment was futile, the doctor had to act in accordance with a responsible body of medical opinion. More precisely the doctor had to satisfy the Bolam test. It is difficult to comprehend how it is relevant in deciding what is in the best interests of a patient –conflicting views of doctors will always be Bolam reasonable as long as one other doctor supports that view. In conclusion, the courts have established a completely different system of establishing the standard of care for medical professionals to that of other professionals. The Bolam approach has traditionally been interpreted as a principle that a doctor will not be negligent if other professional opinion holds his actions as reasonable, even if that opinion is a minority. The courts have been deferential to the profession, and the apparent move away from such approach in Bolitho is a disappointment of this deference. Lord Browne-Wilkinson’s words were read quite literally, the emphasis being placed upon the words, ‘but if in a rare case’ – the courts have only questioned ‘reasonable and responsible’ medical opinion in a very small amount of cases and it seems as though the Bolitho approach is, as Mason and Laurie commented, a mere ‘back up’ if the judge wishes to find for the claimant. Whilst the courts have slowly begun to depart fro m the traditional approach, more needs to be done before there is any comparison with the approach of other Commonwealth jurisdictions, such as Australia. Furthermore, the courts should be more clear in their reasoning, as it is also important to be able to ascertain objectively how cases should be decided on grounds of precedent. The majority of clinical negligence claims that are commenced, are settled by the NHS Litigation Authority before they even reach court and would it not be more economic for the NHS to be able to ascertain with greater certainty when a doctor has been negligent? Finally, the decision in Bolitho is far from a departure of judicial deference to the medical profession, it is a mere spin on the language originally used in Bolam. The courts now have ground to make in establishing a more fair, predictable and objective approach in line with other negligence actions. Bibliography Brazier, M. ‘Medicine, Patients and the Law’ (2003, 3rd edn) Penguin Books, London Davies, M. ‘Textbook on Medical Law’ (2001, 2nd edn) Blackstone Press, London Jaskson, E., ‘Medical Law – Text, Cases and Materials’ (2006) Oxford University Press, Oxford Kennedy, I. Grubb, A. ‘Medical Law’ (2000, 3rd edn) Butterworths, London Mason, JK et al, ‘Law and Medical Ethics’ (2002, 6th edn) Butterworths, London Montgomery, J. ‘Health Care Law’ (2003, 2nd edn) Oxford University Press, Oxford National Audit Office, Handling Clinical Negligence Claims in England, 2001 Singer, P., ‘Rethinking Life and Death: The Collapse of our Traditional Ethics’ (OUP Oxford 1994) Journal Articles Brazier, M., Miola, J., ‘Bye-Bye Bolam: A Medical Litigation Revolution?’ (2000) 8 Med L Rev 85 Keown, J., ‘Reining In the Bolam Test’ (1998) 57 CLJ 248 Teff, H., ‘The Standard of Care in Medical Negligence – Moving on from Bolam?’ (1998) 19 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 473-84 Woolf, Lord., ‘Are the Courts Excessively Deferential to the Medical Profession?’ (2001) 9 Medical Law Review 1-16. 1 Footnotes [1] The establishment of negligence is a common law creation – see Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] All ER Rep 1 [2] Kennedy and Grubb, ‘Medical Law’ (3rd edn, 2000) at pp 278 [3] Medicine, Patients and the Law, (3rd Edn, 2003) at pp 141 [4] See for example, Nettleship v. Weston [1971] 2 QB 691 [5][1957] 2 All ER 118 [6] (1981) unreported, and Maynard v. West Midlands Regional Health Authority [1985] 1 All ER 635 [7] Jackson, E., ‘Medical Law – Text, Cases and Materials’, (2006, OUP), Oxford at page 123 [8] [1987] 1 QB 730 [9] above, n 4. [10] Lord Scarman in Sidaway v Board of Governors of the Bethlem Royal Hospital [1985] 1 All ER 643 [11] [1985] 1 All ER 635 [12] Kennedy and Grubb, ‘Medical Law’ (3rd edn, 2000) at pp 418 [13] [1993] 4 Med LR 393. Despite the fact that the case was reported in 1994, the decision was actually made in 1960 [14] [1997] 4 All ER 771 [15] Kennedy and Grubb, ‘Medical Law’ (3rd edn, 2000) at pp 445 [16] [1998] Lloyd’s Rep Med 223 CA [17] Unreported, 30 May 2002 [18] [1999] Lloyds Rep Med 23 [19] Mason, J.K., Laurie, G.T., ‘Mason McCall Smith’s Law and Medical Ethics’, (2006, 7th Edn) Oxford University Press, Oxford. [20] See for example, De Freitas v O’Brien [1995] 6 Med LR 108 [21] see for example, Briody v St Helen’s Knowsley AHA [1999] Lloyd’s Rep. Med. 185, Hallatt v NW Anglia HA [1998] Lloyd’s Rep. Med. 197, and Rhodes v W Surrey NE Hampshire HA [1998] Lloyd’s Rep. Med.. 256 [22] ‘Are the Courts Excessively Deferential to the Medical Profession?’ (2001) 9 Medical Law Review 1-16. [23] Ibid [24] Ibid. Also see, National Audit Office, Handling Clinical Negligence Claims in England, 2001 [25] Lord Woolf, above n 22 [26] ‘The Standard of Care in Medical Negligence – Moving on from Bolam?’ (1998) 19 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 473-84 [27] Ibid [28] [1985] 1 All ER 643 [29] [1988] QB 481 [30] (1992) 67 ALJR 47 [31] above, n 22 [32] See for example Re S (adult patient: sterilisation) [2001] Fam 15, [2000] 3 WLR 1288. [33] [1993] 1 All ER 821 [34] [1993] AC 789 at 869